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Stolons and rhizomes are horizontal underground stems that play significant roles in plant growth and reproduction. Stolons are above-ground, produce new plants at their nodes, and help spread plants horizontally. Rhizomes are underground, store nutrients, and enable vegetative reproduction by forming new shoots and roots at their nodes. Both structures aid in nutrient acquisition and…

Ketoconazole and nystatin are both antifungal drugs used to treat fungal infections. Ketoconazole is an imidazole antifungal that works by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, a component of the fungal cell membrane. Nystatin is a polyene antifungal that works by binding to ergosterol in the fungal cell membrane, causing leakage of cell contents and cell…

Winged scapula surgery aims to correct the abnormal protrusion of the scapula, commonly caused by nerve injuries or musculoskeletal disorders. The procedure involves reattaching the affected muscles to the scapula, restoring the stability and alignment of the shoulder joint. The surgery may be performed openly, arthroscopically, or endoscopically, depending on the specific condition and the…

A plaster cast for a scaphoid fracture immobilizes the wrist and thumb to promote bone healing. The process involves reducing the fracture, applying a plaster bandage soaked in water, and shaping it to conform to the limb. The cast remains in place for several weeks, allowing the bone to heal and preventing movement that could…

The proximal pole of the scaphoid, a carpal bone in the wrist, presents a palmar or volar surface with a concavity that accommodates the proximal pole of the capitate and a prominent bony elevation called the scaphoid tuberosity. Additionally, the proximal pole displays a lunate facet for articulation with the lunate bone and a radial…

The inferior angle of the scapula, located at its caudal extremity, serves as an attachment point for the teres major muscle posteriorly. This angle forms the caudal border of the scapula and plays a role in stabilizing the scapula during arm movements, particularly during extension and adduction. The teres major is responsible for external rotation…

Avascular necrosis of the scaphoid is a condition that occurs when the blood supply to the scaphoid bone in the wrist is disrupted, leading to bone death. It typically affects the proximal pole of the scaphoid, which is the end that connects to the radius bone in the forearm. Risk factors include scaphoid fractures, steroid…

A scapholunate ligament strain occurs when the ligament connecting the scaphoid and lunate bones in the wrist is stretched or torn. This can result from a fall or other impact injury, and can cause pain, swelling, and difficulty with wrist movement. In severe cases, surgery may be required to repair or reconstruct the ligament. Wrist…

A scaphoid bone cyst is a fluid-filled cavity that develops within the scaphoid bone, one of the eight small bones that make up the wrist joint. It is typically caused by a fracture or other injury to the bone. Symptoms of a scaphoid bone cyst can include pain, swelling, tenderness, and stiffness in the wrist….

Upward rotation of the scapula is achieved by the serratus anterior and upper trapezius muscles. The serratus anterior originates from the ribs and inserts into the medial border of the scapula, while the upper trapezius originates from the cervical vertebrae and inserts into the lateral third of the clavicle and acromion. When these muscles contract,…

Scapula and neck pain, often stemming from muscular, neural, or structural issues, can significantly impact daily life. Shoulder joint mechanics, involving the scapula, cervical spine, neck muscles, and brachial plexus, can be disrupted by conditions such as scapular pain, neck pain, cervical radiculopathy, or scalenus syndrome. Symptoms commonly include: pain, stiffness, and numbness or tingling…

The scapular winging exercise targets the muscles responsible for stabilizing the shoulder blade (scapula). It involves retracting the scapula towards the spine while lifting the arms overhead. This action strengthens the serratus anterior and trapezius muscles, which help prevent the scapula from protruding outward (winging). The exercise is performed while lying down with elbows bent…